Location: 40.8N, 14.4E
Elevation: 4,200 feet (1,281 m)
Vesuvius, Space Shuttle photograph. Compare to the map below. The Somma Rim, a caldera-like structure formed by the collapse of a stratovolcano about 17,000 years ago, is visible as an arcuate dark area to the right and above Vesuvius. The Bay of Naples is on the lower left. The small hook of land near the right margin of the photo is part of a caldera of the Phlegraean Fields volcanic region. The caldera formed about 34,000 years ago. From 1983-1985 an area of 31 square miles (80 square kilometers) was uplifted, in places up to 5.9 feet (1.8 meters), damaging homes, the harbor, and the tourist industry. Ultimately 36,000 people were relocated.
Vesuvius is famous for the catastrophic eruption in 79 A.D. that buried the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Photograph is looking northwest from Pompeii to Vesuvius. Photo by Chuck Wood.
Vesuvius is a complex volcano. According to Peter Francis (p. 351) a complex volcano is "an extensive assemblage of spatially, temporally, and genetically related major and minor [volcanic] centers with their associated lava flows and pyroclastic flows." Vesuvius has a long history. The oldest dated rock from the volcano is about 300,000 years old. It was collected from a well drilled near the volcano and was probably part of the Somma volcano. After Somma collapsed about 17,000 years ago, Vesuvius began to form. Vesuvius is a stratovolcano. This vertical aerial photograph shows Vesuvius (bottom), the steep caldera wall of Somma (middle), dark lava flows from the 1944 eruption (north of Vesuvius, against the wall of Somma), and the slope of the former Somma volcano (top). U.S. Navy photograph from Green and Short (1971).
In 5960 B.C. and 3580 B.C., Vesuvius had two eruptions that rate among the largest known in Europe. The area was frequently jolted by large earthquakes. This decorative stonework records the damage caused by an earlier earthquake, perhaps the earthquake of 62 A.D. that preceded the 79 A.D. eruption. Copyrighted photograph of Robert Decker.
The 79 A.D. eruption of Vesuvius was the first volcanic eruption ever to be described in detail. From 18 miles (30 km) west of the volcano, Pliny the Younger, witnessed the eruption and later recorded his observations in two letters. He described the earthquakes before the eruption, the eruption column, air fall, the effects of the eruption on people, pyroclastic flows, and even tsunami. Volcanologists now use the term "plinian" to refer to sustained explosive eruptions which generate high-altitude eruption columns and blanket large areas with ash. It is estimated that at times during the eruption the column of ash was 20 miles (32 km) tall. About 1 cubic mile (4 cubic kilometers) of ash was erupted in about 19 hours. Volcanoes by Peter Francis contains several direct passages from Pliny the Younger and describes the archeology of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Copyrighted photograph of a street in Pompeii by Robert Decker, 1971. Vesuvius is in the background.
About 10 feet (3 m) of tephra fell on Pompeii, burying everything except the roofs of some buildings. The city was abandoned and its location forgotten. In 1595, excavations discovered artifacts at Pompeii and centuries of pillaging followed. Archeological excavations began in the mid-nineteenth century. Now, much of Pompeii has been excavated and it has revealed much about how people lived during that time (and died during the eruption). There are numerous molds of people in their final moments. The mold of a dog is shown in the above photo. The poor animal was chained to a post and struggled for hours before finally succumbing to the ash.
Herculaneum was buried under 75 feet (23 m) of ash deposited by a pyroclastic flow. This photo shows buildings that were near the waterfront. Photograph copyrighted and provided by Steve O'Meara of Volcano Watch International.
Herculaneum, once a seaside resort, is now surrounded by the modern city of Ercolano. About 5,000 people lived in the city at the time of the eruption. Photograph copyrighted and provided by Steve O'Meara of Volcano Watch International.
Click here to see older drawings of Vesuvius.
Vesuvius has erupted about three dozen times since 79 A.D., most recently from 1913-1944. The 1913-1944 eruption is thought to be the end of an eruptive cycle that began in 1631. Photo by Italian Air Force from Green and Short (1971).
Click here to see postcards that show early episodes of the 1913-1944 eruption.
The rocks at Vesuvius are called tephrite. A tephrite is basaltic in character and contains the following minerals: calcic plagioclase, augite, and nepheline or leucite.
Vesuvius is a dangerous and deadly volcano. Mudflows and lava flows from the eruption in 1631 killed 3,500 people. About 3,360 people died in the 79 A.D. eruption from ash flows and falls. Studies of past eruptions and their deposits continue. These studies help volcanologists understand the hazards associated with future eruptions. The population density in some areas of high risk is 20,000 to 30,000 per square km. About 3 million people could be seriously affected by future eruptions. In the first 15 minutes of a medium- to large-scale eruption an area with a 4 mile (7 km) radius of the volcano could be destroyed (Dobran and others, 1994). About 1 million people live and work in this area.
There are no signs of volcanic unrest at Vesuvius at the present time (February 1996).
Vesuvius is above a subduction zone. The African plate is moving northward at about one inch (2-3 cm) per year and is slowly closing the Mediterranean basin. As it moves to the north, the African plate is pushed beneath the Eurasian plate.
Also The Letters Of Pliny The Younger
Letters of Pliny the Younger
To Cornelius Tacitus
Thank you for asking me to send you a description of my uncle’s death so that
you can leave an accurate account of it for posterity; I know that immortal fame
awaits him if his death is recorded by you. It is true that he perished in a
catastrophe which destroyed the loveliest regions of the earth, a fate shared by
whole cities and their people, and one so memorable that it is likely to make
his name live for ever: and he himself wrote a number of books of lasting value:
but you write for all time and can still do much to perpetuate his memory. The
fortunate man, in my opinion, is he to whom the gods have granted the power
either to do something which is worth recording or to write what is worth
reading, and most fortunate of all is the man who can do both. Such a man was my
uncle, as his own books and yours will prove. So you set me a task I would
choose for myself, and I am more than willing to start on it.
My uncle was stationed at Misenum, in active command of the fleet. On 24 August,
in the early afternoon, my mother drew his attention to a cloud of unusual size
and appearance. He had been out in the sun, had taken a cold bath, and lunched
while lying down, and was then working at his books. He called for his shoes and
climbed up to a place which would give him the best view of the phenomenon. It
was not clear at that distance from which mountain the cloud was rising (it was
afterwards known to be Vesuvius); its general appearance can best be expressed
as being like an umbrella pine, for it rose to a great height on a sort of trunk
and then split off into branches, I imagine because it was thrust upwards by the
first blast and then left unsupported as the pressure subsided, or else it was
borne down by its own weight so that it spread out and gradually dispersed.
Sometimes it looked white, sometimes blotched and dirty, according to the amount
of sod and ashes it carried with it. My uncle’s scholarly acumen saw at once
that it was important enough for a closer inspection, and he ordered a boat to
be made ready, telling me I could come with him if I wished. I replied that I
preferred to go on with my studies, and as it happened he had himself given me
some writing to do.
As he was leaving the house he was handed a message from Rectina, wife of
Tascius whose house was at the foot of the mountain, so that escape was
impossible except by boat. She was terrified by the danger threatening her and
implored him to rescue her from her fate. He changed his plans, and what he had
begun in a spirit of inquiry he completed as a hero. He gave orders for the
warships to be launched and went on board himself with the intention of bringing
help to many more people besides Rectina, for this lovely stretch of coast was
thickly populated. He hurried to the place which everyone else was hastily
leaving, steering his course straight for the danger zone. He was entirely
fearless, describing each new movement and phase of the portent to be noted down
exactly as he observed them. Ashes were already falling, hotter and thicker as
the ships drew near, followed by bits of pumice and blackened stones, charred
and cracked by the flames: then suddenly they were in shallow water, and the
shore was blocked by the debris from the mountain. For a moment my uncle
wondered whether to turn back, but when the helmsman advised this he refused,
telling him that Fortune stood by the courageous and they must make for
Pomponianus at Stabiae. He was cut off there by the breadth of the bay (for the
shore gradually curves round a basin filled by the sea) so that he was not as
yet in danger, though it was clear that this would come nearer as it spread.
Pomponianus had therefore already put his belongings on board ship, intending to
escape if the contrary wind fell. This wind was of course full in my uncle’s
favour, and he was able to bring his ship in. He embraced his terrified friend,
cheered and encouraged him, and thinking he could calm his fears by showing his
own composure, gave orders that he was to be carried to the bathroom. After his
bath he lay down and dined; he was quite cheerful, or at any rate he pretended
he was, which was no less courageous.
Meanwhile on Mount Vesuvius broad sheets of fire and leaping flames blazed at
several points, their bright glare emphasized by the darkness of night. My uncle
tried to allay the fears of his companions by repeatedly declaring that these
were nothing but bonfires left by the peasants in their terror, or else empty
houses on fire in the districts they had abandoned. Then he went to rest and
certainly slept, for as he was a stout man his breathing was rather loud and
heavy and could be heard by people coming and going outside his door. By this
time the courtyard giving access to his room was full of ashes mixed with
pumice-stones, so that its level had risen, and if he had stayed in the room any
longer he would never have got out. He was wakened, came out and joined
Pomponianus and the rest of the household who had sat up all night. They debated
whether to stay indoors or take their chance in the open, for the buildings were
now shaking with violent shocks, and seemed to be swaying to and fro as if they
were torn from their foundations. Outside on the other hand, there was the
danger of falling pumice-stones, even though these were light and porous;
however, after comparing the risks they chose the latter. In my uncle’s case one
reason outweighed the other, but for the others it was a choice of fears. As a
protection against falling objects they put pillows on their heads tied down
with cloths.
Elsewhere there was daylight by this time, but they were still in darkness,
blacker and denser than any ordinary night, which they relieved by lighting
torches and various kinds of lamp. My uncle decided to go down to the shore and
investigate on the spot the possibility of any escape by sea, but he found the
waves still wild and dangerous. A sheet was spread on the ground for him to lie
down, and he repeatedly asked for cold water to drink. Then the flames and smell
of sulphur which gave warning of the approaching fire drove the others to take
flight and roused him to stand up. He stood leaning on two slaves and then
suddenly collapsed, I imagine because the dense fumes choked his breathing by
blocking his windpipe which was constitutionally weak and narrow and often
inflamed. When daylight returned on the 26th—two days after the last day he had
seen—his body was found intact and uninjured, still fully clothed and looking
more like sleep than death.
Meanwhile my mother and I were at Misenum, but this is not of any historic
interest, and you only wanted to hear about my uncle’s death. I will say no
more, except to add that I have described in detail every incident which I
either witnessed myself or heard about immediately after the event, when reports
were most likely to be accurate. It is for you to select what best suits your
purpose, for there is a great difference between a letter to a friend and
history written for all to read.
Letter to the Emperor Trajan
It is my custom to refer all my difficulties to you, Sir, for no one is better
able to resolve my doubts and to inform my ignorance.
I have never been present at an examination of Christians. Consequently, I do
not know the nature of the extent of the punishments usually meted out to them,
nor the grounds for starting an investigation and how far it should be pressed.
Nor am I at all sure whether any distinction should be made between them on the
grounds of age, or if young people and adults should be treated alike; whether a
pardon ought to be granted to anyone retracting his beliefs, or if he has once
professed Christianity, he shall gain nothing by renouncing it; and whether it
is the mere name of Christian which is punishable, even if innocent of crime, or
rather the crimes associated with the name.
For the moment this is the line I have taken with all persons brought before me
on the charge of being Christians. I have asked them in person if they are
Christians, and if they admit it, I repeat the question a second and third time,
with a warning of the punishment awaiting them. If they persist, I order them to
be led away for execution; for, whatever the nature of their admission, I am
convinced that their stubbornness and unshakeable obstinacy ought not to go
unpunished.
There have been others similarly fanatical who are Roman citizens. I have
entered them on the list of persons to be sent to Rome for trial.
Now that I have begun to deal with this problem, as so often happens, the
charges are becoming more widespread and increasing in variety. An anonymous
pamphlet has been circulated which contains the names of a number of accused
persons. Amongst these I considered that I should dismiss any who denied that
they were or ever had been Christians when they had repeated after me a formula
of invocation to the gods and had made offerings of wine and incense to your
statue (which I had ordered to be brought into court for this purpose along with
the images of the gods), and furthermore had reviled the name of Christ: none of
which things, I understand, any genuine Christian can be induced to do.
Others, whose names were given to me by an informer, first admitted the charge
and then denied it; they said that they had ceased to be Christians two or more
years previously, and some of them even twenty years ago. They all did reverence
to your statue and the images of the gods in the same way as the others, and
reviled the name of Christ. They also declared that the sum total of their guilt
or error amounted to no more than this: they had met regularly before dawn on a
fixed day to chant verses alternately amongst themselves in honour of Christ as
if to a god, and also to bind themselves by oath, not for any criminal purpose,
but to abstain from theft, robbery, and adultery, to commit no breach of trust
and not to deny a deposit when called upon to restore it. After this ceremony it
had been their custom to disperse and reassemble later to take food of an
ordinary, harmless kind; but they had in fact given up this practice since my
edict, issued on your instructions, which banned all political societies. This
made me decide it was all the more necessary to extract the truth by torture
from two slave-women, whom they call deaconesses. I found nothing but a
degenerate sort of cult carried to extravagant lengths.
I have therefore postponed any further examination and hastened to consult you.
The question seems to me to be worthy of your consideration, especially in view
of the number of persons endangered, for a great many individuals of every age
and class, both men and women, are being brought to trial, and this is likely to
continue. It is not only the towns, but villages and rural districts too which
are infected through contact with this wretched cult. I think though that it is
still possible for it to be checked and directed to better ends, for there is no
doubt that people have begun to throng the temples which had been almost
entirely deserted for a long time; the sacred rites which had been allowed to
lapse are being performed again, and flesh of sacrificial victims is on sale
everywhere, though up till recently scarcely anyone could be found to buy it. It
is easy to infer from this that a great many people could be reformed if they
were given an opportunity to repent